Five Significant Roman Catholic Theologians of the 20th and 21st Centuries
I recently enjoyed a brief conversation with my friend, historian Stephen Mansfield concerning the influence of Pope Benedict XVI and John Paul II. In particular, we noted Benedict’s prescient views on the Church’s struggle with late modernity and the deconstruction unleashed by post-modernism in the West. That got me thinking about who I might consider the most important Roman Catholic theologians of the past 100 years, at least in terms of internal and external influence.
I landed on five central thinkers - and yes, I could list some more, and only time will tell whether or not the list stands up. They are Henri de Lubac, Hans Urs von Balthasar, Pope John Paul II (Wojtiya), Benedict XVI (Ratzinger), and Karl Rahner. I’d add Yves Congar to that list, but with De Lubac’s presence, his essential thought as an influence on Vatican II is included, though Congar’s work on the Holy Spirit is a massive contribution that should not be missed.
I appreciate that some people might not be all that interested in such a reflection, but for those who are, here’s a brief intro to these five very influential Roman Catholic theologians from the 20th and 21st centuries. These theologians not only advanced Catholic theology but also contributed significantly to the Second Vatican Council, the development of post-conciliar thought, and the articulation of the Roman Catholic faith in the modern world.
1. Henri de Lubac (1896-1991)
Henri de Lubac, a Jesuit priest and theologian, was one of the most important figures of 20th-century Catholic theology, contributing significantly to the resurgence of patristic and medieval theological thought. His influence extended far beyond academia, shaping much of the theology behind the Second Vatican Council.
Key Contributions:
Nature and Grace Debate: De Lubac is best known for his work on the relationship between nature and grace, most notably in his seminal work Surnaturel (1946). In this text, he argued against the neo-scholastic distinction between the "natural" and "supernatural" orders that was prevalent in the early 20th century. Neo-scholasticism held that human beings could naturally pursue their own end—natural happiness—independent of divine grace. De Lubac, drawing from the Church Fathers, argued that human beings are inherently oriented toward God and that this desire for the divine is part of our natural constitution. He emphasized that the desire for God is intrinsic to human nature, thus challenging the dualism between nature and grace.
The Mystical Body of Christ: De Lubac was also a strong advocate of the idea of the Church as the "Mystical Body of Christ." He emphasized the unity of the Church as not just a visible institution but as a spiritual reality rooted in the life of Christ. This theological perspective significantly influenced the ecclesiology developed at Vatican II, especially in Lumen Gentium.
Recovering Patristic Theology: One of de Lubac’s greatest contributions was his insistence on returning to the sources of the Church, particularly the works of the Church Fathers. His scholarship helped inspire the ressourcement movement, which sought to recover the richness of early Christian thought in response to the rigid, and often dry, formulations of neo-scholasticism. His work paved the way for a broader renewal in Catholic theology.
Legacy:
De Lubac’s ideas on the relationship between nature and grace, the Church, and patristic theology remain influential today. He was appointed a cardinal by Pope John Paul II in 1983, symbolizing the high regard the Church had for his contributions. His works remain central to contemporary theological discussions on the nature of humanity’s relationship with God and the ecclesial community.
2. Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905-1988)
Hans Urs von Balthasar, a Swiss theologian and priest, was another pivotal figure in 20th-century Catholic thought. Often regarded as one of the greatest theologians of the century, Balthasar’s wide-ranging works addressed theology, philosophy, literature, and culture.
Key Contributions:
Aesthetic Theology: One of Balthasar’s most distinctive contributions was his development of an aesthetic approach to theology, particularly in his magnum opus The Glory of the Lord. Balthasar argued that beauty is a transcendental attribute of God and that it should play a central role in theology. For Balthasar, theology had become too focused on the "true" (intellectual) and the "good" (moral), neglecting the importance of beauty (aesthetic). In his theological aesthetics, he explored how God reveals Himself in the splendor of creation and through Christ’s form, emphasizing that beauty leads us to the truth of God.
Theological Dramatics and Theo-Drama: Balthasar introduced the concept of the-drama in his five-volume work Theo-Drama, where he proposed that human history and salvation should be understood as a divine drama in which human beings are participants. This approach was both novel and profound, as it emphasized the interplay between divine freedom and human freedom within the unfolding of salvation history. He proposed that God and man are actors on the stage of the cosmos, engaged in a relationship that culminates in the paschal mystery of Christ.
Christology and Trinitarian Theology: Balthasar developed a unique Christocentric theology in which Christ is the ultimate revelation of God. His focus on Christ’s kenosis (self-emptying) as a model of divine love became central to his theological framework. His reflections on the Trinity, particularly the intra-Trinitarian love between the Father and the Son, further shaped his theology of divine beauty and love.
Legacy:
Hans Urs von Balthasar left an indelible mark on Catholic theology. Though he never participated directly in Vatican II, his theological vision influenced many Council participants. He was deeply admired by both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI, the latter of whom was a close collaborator. In 1988, John Paul II intended to make him a cardinal, but Balthasar passed away shortly before the ceremony. His integration of aesthetics, drama, and Christology continues to shape contemporary theological discussions, particularly in areas of Trinitarian theology, soteriology, and ecclesiology.
3. Pope St. John Paul II (1920-2005)
Pope John Paul II, born Karol Wojtyła, was not only a pontiff who reshaped the modern papacy but also an accomplished philosopher and theologian. His theological contributions extend well beyond his papal encyclicals, and his approach to theology was deeply pastoral, engaging with the modern world while remaining firmly rooted in Catholic tradition.
Key Contributions:
Theology of the Body: Perhaps John Paul II’s most famous theological contribution is his Theology of the Body. In a series of Wednesday audiences between 1979 and 1984, he offered a profound reflection on human sexuality, marriage, and the meaning of the human body. Drawing from his philosophical background in phenomenology, Wojtyła emphasized the personalistic and sacramental nature of human relationships, particularly marriage. He argued that the body is not merely a biological reality but has deep theological significance, pointing to the image of God and the mystery of divine love.
Philosophical Personalism: Before becoming pope, Wojtyła was an academic philosopher, and his work in personalism greatly influenced his theological perspective. In his 1960 book Love and Responsibility, he applied his personalistic philosophy to issues of human love and sexual ethics. He argued for the intrinsic dignity of the human person, emphasizing the importance of seeing individuals as subjects rather than objects. This philosophy became a cornerstone of his papal writings, particularly in his encyclicals on social and moral issues.
Christian Anthropology and Freedom: John Paul II’s theology often centered on the question of human freedom, dignity, and responsibility. He saw human freedom not as a license but as the ability to choose the good and the true. This understanding of freedom underpinned his extensive critiques of both Communism and Western liberalism, as he sought to affirm the centrality of the human person in political and economic systems.
Engagement with Modernity: One of the most distinctive aspects of John Paul II’s theology was his engagement with modernity. He was deeply concerned with the cultural and moral crises of the 20th century, and his papacy sought to confront these crises by offering a Christian humanism that responded to the dignity of the human person. His encyclicals such as Fides et Ratio (Faith and Reason) and Veritatis Splendor (The Splendor of Truth) tackled key questions about the relationship between faith, reason, and moral truth.
Legacy:
John Paul II’s theological legacy is immense. His writings on human sexuality, the dignity of the person, and the relationship between faith and reason have become central to contemporary Catholic theology. His influence continues to be felt in debates on bioethics, marriage, and human rights. Moreover, his philosophical insights into personalism and his engagement with modern cultural challenges have left a lasting imprint on Catholic intellectual life.
4. Pope Benedict XVI (1927-2022)
Before becoming Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, Joseph Ratzinger was already one of the leading Catholic theologians of the 20th century. As a scholar, professor, and later Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger’s theology is marked by a deep commitment to the centrality of Christ, a focus on the continuity of tradition, and a clear-eyed assessment of the challenges facing the modern Church.
Key Contributions:
Christocentric Theology: Ratzinger’s theological work was consistently centered on Christ. His Introduction to Christianity (1968) remains one of his most famous works, where he presents the essentials of the Christian faith with a particular focus on the person of Jesus Christ. He argued that theology must always be rooted in Christ, who is the ultimate revelation of God. This Christocentric focus is evident throughout his writings, from his early theological works to his later papal documents.
Defense of Tradition and Continuity: As Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger was tasked with defending the Church’s teaching authority and ensuring theological orthodoxy. One of his most significant contributions in this role was his defense of the continuity of Catholic tradition, particularly in the context of the Second Vatican Council. While some theologians sought to interpret Vatican II as a rupture with previous Church teaching, Ratzinger emphasized a "hermeneutic of continuity," arguing that the Council should be seen as part of the Church’s ongoing tradition rather than a radical departure from it.
This theme is present in his writings as pope, most notably in his 2005 address to the Roman Curia, where he explicitly contrasted the "hermeneutic of rupture" with the "hermeneutic of reform." He maintained that true reform in the Church is always rooted in its tradition and faithful to its essential teachings while also being open to necessary adaptations in response to new challenges.
Faith and Reason: One of Ratzinger’s central concerns, like his predecessor John Paul II, was the relationship between faith and reason. His 2006 Regensburg Lecture, in which he famously critiqued both secular rationalism and Islamic fundamentalism, emphasized that faith and reason are complementary. He argued that reason divorced from faith becomes instrumental and can be used to justify inhumane practices, while faith without reason risks descending into irrationality and fanaticism. This synthesis of faith and reason was also a theme in his 2007 encyclical Spe Salvi (Saved by Hope), where he discussed the dangers of modern secularism and the need for a hope rooted in both faith and reason.
Liturgy and the Reform of the Reform: Another of Benedict’s significant theological interests was the liturgy. He was deeply concerned with what he saw as the disintegration of the sacred in the wake of some post-Vatican II liturgical reforms. His 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, which granted broader access to the traditional Latin Mass, was part of his effort to foster a deeper sense of reverence and continuity in Catholic liturgical life. He advocated for a "reform of the reform," aiming to bring the ordinary form of the Mass into greater continuity with the Church’s liturgical tradition.
Legacy:
Pope Benedict XVI’s legacy is multifaceted. He is remembered as a brilliant theologian who combined deep intellectual rigor with a pastoral heart. His writings on the nature of the Church, Christology, the liturgy, and the relationship between faith and reason continue to shape Catholic thought. His resignation in 2013, the first papal resignation in nearly 600 years, further cemented his historical significance. While he often faced criticism for his conservatism, especially regarding his defense of tradition and liturgical reforms, his intellectual contributions remain highly influential in the Church’s ongoing dialogue with modernity.
5. Karl Rahner (1904-1984)
Karl Rahner, a German Jesuit priest and theologian, was one of the most important and controversial Catholic theologians of the 20th century. His contributions to theology are vast, covering areas such as ecclesiology, soteriology, and theological anthropology. Rahner’s thought profoundly shaped the direction of the Second Vatican Council and continues to influence contemporary theology.
Key Contributions:
Transcendental Thomism: Rahner developed a theological approach often referred to as "transcendental Thomism." Influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and the metaphysical framework of Thomas Aquinas, Rahner attempted to bridge the gap between modern existential philosophy and traditional Catholic theology. His transcendental method focuses on the human experience of God, emphasizing that all human beings have an innate orientation toward the divine. This orientation, or "supernatural existential," is the foundation of Rahner’s theology of grace, in which grace is not something added to human nature but rather intrinsic to it.
Anonymous Christianity: One of Rahner’s most famous and controversial concepts is that of "anonymous Christianity." In his effort to address the salvation of non-Christians, Rahner proposed that individuals who have not explicitly accepted the Christian faith could still be considered "anonymous Christians" if they live according to the dictates of conscience and are open to God’s grace. This concept sparked significant debate, especially concerning its implications for interreligious dialogue and evangelization. Rahner’s theology sought to balance the universality of Christ’s salvific work with the recognition of religious diversity.
Theology of Revelation: Rahner also made significant contributions to the theology of revelation. He argued that revelation is not merely a set of propositions or doctrines handed down by the Church, but rather an ongoing encounter with the living God. For Rahner, revelation is experienced within the context of human history and subjectivity. His emphasis on the experiential dimension of revelation influenced much of the post-Vatican II understanding of divine communication and the role of the Church in mediating revelation.
The Church and the World: Rahner’s ecclesiology was deeply influenced by his understanding of the Church’s relationship with the modern world. He argued that the Church must be open to dialogue with the world and that its mission is not to stand apart from the world but to engage it in a spirit of openness and service. His ideas contributed significantly to the development of Gaudium et Spes, one of the key documents of Vatican II, which emphasized the Church’s responsibility to engage with the modern world and to promote social justice.
Legacy:
Karl Rahner’s influence on modern Catholic theology cannot be overstated. His efforts to engage with contemporary philosophy, his innovative ideas on grace and revelation, and his contributions to ecclesiology and interfaith dialogue have made him one of the most influential theologians of the 20th century. While some of his ideas have been controversial, particularly his concept of "anonymous Christianity," Rahner’s work has helped shape the Church’s understanding of itself and its mission in the modern world.
Conclusion
The five theologians—Henri de Lubac, Hans Urs von Balthasar, John Paul II, Benedict XVI (Joseph Ratzinger), and Karl Rahner—represent a diverse contribution to Roman Catholic theology in the 20th and 21st centuries. Each of these figures grappled with the challenges posed by modernity, the need for theological renewal, and the task of articulating the Roman Catholic faith in a world undergoing rapid social and intellectual changes.
Henri de Lubac reconnected theology with the Church Fathers and challenged the dualism of nature and grace.
Hans Urs von Balthasar brought a fresh aesthetic and dramatic vision to theology, centering on beauty and the mystery of Christ.
John Paul II offered a Christian humanism deeply rooted in personalism and a defense of the dignity of the human person as the image of God.
Benedict XVI emphasized the importance of tradition, the synthesis of faith and reason, and a renewed reverence for the liturgy.
Karl Rahner expanded the theological conversation through his transcendental method, engagement with modern thought, and his vision of the Church’s role in the world.
Together, these theologians have shaped the trajectory of modern Roman Catholic theology, providing resources that continue to inform the Church’s teaching and engagement with contemporary issues. Their intellectual and spiritual legacies endure, offering insights into the mystery of God, the role of the Church, and the vocation of humanity. Thoughtful Protestants can continue to interact with their work, learning from them as they do so while remaining faithful to their own confessional communions. Critique is also vital, and Rahner’s work in particular affords numerous opportunities for such interaction.
While grateful for Vatican II's gains, we “separated brethren” will continue to pray for the kind of Roman Catholic leadership that will lift the anathemas of the Council of Trent and more thoroughly embrace the magisterial Reformation's central emphases on Scripture and the gospel. Perhaps the third millennium of the Church’s story will see further renewal and reunion, a fresh embrace of an even deeper “ressourcement.”
Lastly, I can’t offer this article without noting the new work by Gavin Ortlund on What it Means to be Protestant - https://www.amazon.com/What-Means-Be-Protestant-Always-Reforming/dp/0310156327/ref=sr_1_2?crid=1JA1L9XZBLWDK&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.vaZFzw2rhW0JbPPE2arNNqMjBh3gcPAhx0aGpo--BZlDEC-VRIXyPqVUs80rF9_Obu5KsNHlc6Wcb4QVQiSaoND6oN4IbfHsbm5Y0siJgyqpuNpISrFyttTgCN-Q_1lICVwP08tCQD9WqrfXNmF6HD1rzTazsugfkEXAWW3wiAf1HpVdSXG_yeLhS4I5rNT6MKuMOmw0JOR61JdB2I3gTerURDt9wH5rZNCbWcfE-Vo.39bmESl12ffe1tDRF9hzqJfoF4Yt3ivhw7gzuAVPQ-U&dib_tag=se&keywords=gavin+ortlund&qid=1726935378&s=books&sprefix=Ortlund%2Cstripbooks%2C253&sr=1-2
Ortlund’s relative youth means that he may not show up on lists of the most influential Protestant-Evangelical theologians interacting with Rome (and the Orthodox as well), but he will undoubtedly be included in the coming years.